The Role of Mother Tongues in Second Language Learning Essay

The Role of Mother Tongues in Second Language Learning - Essay Example The impact of first language on second language can bring problems especially in intercultural communication where the speakers use a lingua franca such as English or another language, hence causing misunderstandings and problems in communication. This research will look at how second language is acquired with a close look at the impact of the first language on second language learning. Literature Review/Discussion Second language is any language that a person learns in addition to his/her first language. The term can also be used to refer to learning a third, fourth and subsequent languages. Second language acquisition is therefore the process in which people or learners study that language. Errors made by second language learners have been proved to originate from the speech of their first language by majority of linguists. This occurs as a result of influence of the first language commonly known as language transfer. The errors are mostly lexical or phonological. The learners†™ mother tongue influences the way the second language vocabulary is learnt and recalled for use. Learners at their disposal compensate their lack of knowledge by constructing difficult lexical items that are characterized with errors emanating from their first language. ... What happens in the classroom, for example, is greatly attributed to the social needs of both teachers and learners. According to Chomsky, human beings are endowed with the capability to acquire any language in the world since learning a language involves learning its rules. The rules are systematic for every language though learners make mistakes in the process. These mistakes have been attributed to mother tongue interference. This paper will also look at how mother tongue can enhance or hamper a learner who is using the vocabulary of a second language. This usually happens when a learner acquires a new vocabulary, when he/she is attempting to remember the already leant vocabulary or in the process of constructing a complex lexical item that has not been learnt. Comparison between Languages Different languages construct meanings in different ways and the equivalents only exist depending on what is exactly meant. Though different speakers tend to divide themselves from others, the c onceptualization of some lexical items remains the same. For example, the term dressing is conceived the same by various speakers, a term that generally serves all clothing including shoes, jewellery, glasses among others. Differences in conceptual organization can be as a result of ways in which words are assigned to parts of speech. For instance, Japanese equivalents of English are mostly nouns and verbs. Lado (103) notes that elements that are similar in the fist and second languages will be simple for the learner to grasp. On the other hand, those that have no correspondence will be more difficult to learn. Cross Linguistic Influence and Ease or Difficulty of Learning There are a

EU law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

EU law - Essay Example This brief analysis will work to give counsel to the two women, Ame and Bridget, which are presented in the given case assignment as well as provide them with the legal knowledge and constraints that pertain to their individual cases under domestic and European Commission jurisdictions. Likewise, the analysis will attempt to call out specific portions of the European Commission Directive that aptly apply to their given discrimination complaints. Far from being equal, both cases present us with unique constraints and drawbacks which will be elaborated upon and inference/parallels will be drawn to similar cases that have proceeded these and defined a type of precedent for such actions in the not so distant past. Case 1: Ame’s Claim of Age-Discrimination at the State Health Service of Waltaria With respect to discrimination based upon age, 2000/78/EC article 11 is very specific: â€Å"Discrimination based on religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation may undermine the achievement of the objectives of the EC Treaty, in particular the attainment of a high level of employment and social protection, raising the standard of living and the quality of life, economic and social cohesion and solidarity, and the free movement of persons† (emphasis provided) (EC 2000/78). As such, the law specifically speaks to the fact that Ame could not justifiably or legally been terminated based upon her age alone. However, there are two complicating factors to this interpretation which will be discussed at greater length; however, it is worth repeating that based upon the information Ame has provided , there is grounds for a court case with respect to this particular termination. Firstly, one must be aware of what lengths the defendant will be likely to go to in order to defend the legality and rightfulness of their action. This is not to discourage Ame from seeking legal action on this matter; instead, it is to make her aware that the defendant will likely attempt to invoke article 25 of 2000/78/EC which states: â€Å"The prohibition of age discrimination is an essential part of meeting the aims set out in the Employment Guidelines and encouraging diversity in the workforce. However, differences in treatment in connection with age may be justified under certain circumstances and therefore require specific provisions which may vary in accordance with the situation in Member States. It is therefore essential to distinguish between differences in treatment which are justified, in particular by legitimate employment policy, labour market and vocational training objectives, and discrimination which must be prohibited† (EC 2000/78). To what degree the defense will attempt to invoke this and to what level they have supporting documentation that shows this was their actual goal is of course unknown; however, Ame should be aware that this is a likely tactic. Secondly, due to the lack of material evidence (Ame only has overheard a discus sion by certain elements in management. Her particular case is without strong and relevant proof (i.e. a number of other employees terminated at the same time and of the same demographic group) she will have difficulty providing a solid case within the court system. Although it is clear from her letter that

Story of Dubliners Essay Example for Free

Story of Dubliners Essay The very first story of Dubliners outlines a large theme that can overlay much of the book and may in part be why James Joyce decided to group all of these short stories into one book. The first short story called â€Å"Two Sisters† focuses on the paralysis of a young boy as the impending death of his mentor Father Flynn draws closer. The boy walks past the priest’s home showing that a part of him cannot let go and that he himself is paralyzed by the loss of his friend and mentor who was prepping him for the priesthood. In the first paragraph of the book the narrator talks of the word paralysis and says â€Å"It filled me with fear, and yet I longed to be nearer to it and to look upon its deadly work† (Joyce, 3). The quote summarizes a recurring theme throughout Dubliners and prepares the reader by showing how paralysis in life is dangerous and leads to unhappiness. The story following â€Å"Two Sisters† is called â€Å"An Encounter† which is about two boys and their adventures while skipping school. Seeking escape from everyday life the boys decide to skip school and have an adventure much like the adventures that Mahoney reads in his books. At the start of their day their original plan is working out for them apart from the fact that Joe Dillon who promised to join them was a no show. However, the title suggests that something would happen to the boys. While they are in a field they see an older man coming right towards them. The old man is particularly creepy towards the boys after asking them about their girlfriends and then leaving walking to another part of the field and then coming back talking of beating Mahoney. Faced by this odd situation the narrator feels paralyzed from taking some sort of action to avoid the old man. Mahoney ran off chasing a cat, but the narrator stayed and instead of leaving as well, the peculiarity of the situation keeps him from acting. The narrator does not respond to the man and sits hoping for the moment to just pass by. Only at the very end of the story is the narrator able to stand up and break free from his paralysis. The next story in Dubliners called â€Å"Araby†, centers around a younger boy who has a crush on his friend’s sister who is likely a few years older. Her presence in the story greatly resembles â€Å"An Encounter† because she is seen as an escape to the narrator. She allows him to break away from the dull dragging on everyday life by giving the boy over romanticized thoughts. He goes to the bazaar to get her a gift, however he arrives late and does not have as much money as wanted to buy her a gift. By the end he gives up his attempts to purchase a gift and has a sort of epiphany; however it is not a positive one. The paralysis in the story centers on this youthful defeat and eludes that life itself will be much the same. The three stories prepare the reader for the paralysis in â€Å"Eveline† because in the stories preceding the paralysis is the same, but slightly different every time. In â€Å"Two Sisters† the narrator is paralyzed from the beginning and thinks heavily on the work itself and how destructive it can be. The narrator foreshadows the theme that continues through the whole novel. In â€Å"An Encounter† the narrator is paralyzed in the field by the old man, but he manages to overcome it after a while and leaves. In â€Å"Araby† the narrator breaks free from paralysis when he has his romanticized feelings for his friend’s sister, but at the end is defeated and thrown back into paralysis after failing to get her a gift. In â€Å"Eveline† the paralysis is so evident that the narrator is described as clinging to the cold iron bars. The theme of paralysis is most evident in this story than it is through the entire novel, however the stories placed before â€Å"Eveline† were needed to help the reader further understand paralysis and how it affects people constantly every day. Short Response 5.In â€Å"Two Gallants† Lenehan receives a great deal of depth even though on the surface he could be seen as a simple con man. Lenehan’s partner, Corely, is fairly one dimensional and is a great contrast from Lenehan. Corley seems content with the life that he lives in that he is described as a â€Å"leech†; however Lenehan is shown in a much different light in that he seems distant when walking with Corely at the beginning of the story, lost in his thoughts. Later when Lenehan is walking on his own he thinks of how he wants to settle down and get a steady job with steady pay and have a good home life possibly with a family. The wishes that he has for a better life shows his depth while his partner has none, but once Lenehan sees the gold chain Corely conned a maid into stealing it seems unlikely Lenehan will change. 2.In â€Å"An Encounter† the narrator and Mahoney skip school in search of adventure, however by the end of the story their relationship has greatly changed. Although the narrator never says anything to Mahoney many of his private thoughts are of him thinking why is Mahoney talking to the old man. He was confused on why Mahoney was egging on the old man by having a conversation while the narrator sat silently. The narrator by the end of the story thinks of Mahoney as dumb for being unable to see the oddness of the situation with the old man as he was able to. 4.In â€Å"Eveline† she is undecided on the notion of leaving with her love, Frank, and abandoning her family, particularly her father. The quote â€Å"It was hard work – a hard life – but now that she was about to leave it she did not find it a wholly undesirable life† plays on the fact that numerous time in the story she changes her mind on whether or not to leave. Certain things make her want to leave such as thinking about how her mother felt stuck, while other things made her want to stay such as the harp playing reminding her of her mother’s death. She constantly is convincing herself to either go or stay even if the reason that she comes up with goes against how she actually feels. Her logic leaves her saying things like the quote in that even though she feels the want to leave she convinces herself it is just as nice to stay home.

Analysis Of The Korean War History Essay

Analysis Of The Korean War History Essay The KoreanWar was a military action between north and South Korea for the unifying of the Korean peninsula; both countries have had different ideological agenda under western and eastern ideological power. The republic of Korea (South Korea) was supported by the united nation, NATO, and the USA on the other hand, the democratic people republic of Korea (North Korea) was supported by china and the Soviet Union. The Korean War was a war of west versus the east different philosophy and consideration, but fought far from the major superpower mainland. A war considered as an embarrassment for the international community, many lives were harvested and it did started and ended with accomplishing nothing from the unifying. The Korean peninsula was occupied by the Japaneses for almost 35 years under an iron fest till the defeat of the Japanese in the World War II in 1945. Korean conflict, With Japan on the tremble to surrender, it was necessary for the superpowers to agree upon a future Asian policy that can both assure security for superpower nations and spread principles and influence over strategic zones in the pacific. After the Hiroshima atomic bomb Japan was completely under the US influence which made the soviet deliberate the advantage of occupying Korea, which in adjacent to the communist alley china.At the Potsdam conference, the USA, made plans to invade the Japanese mainland and they have been more than happy to leave Manchuria and Korea to the Soviet Union. But now with war actually coming to sudden end , US urgently reassessed its future interest in Asia and came rapidly to a decision that America must share with the USSR the occupation of Korea (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008), therefore both soviet union and the USA agreed to secure the Korean peninsula by dividing it to north and south using the 38th parallel, and that the USSR shall occupy the n orth next to it ally china and the US the south, Korea polarized as the two power blocs north and south (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008). Each countries started to execute the viewpoint systems of their dominate as a consequence in the south foremost nationalist and members of the anti Japanese resistance had formed a provisional government but at least half of them were communist therefore US and the UN called for a free election in which USSR and the communist party disapproved it and boycotted , US government preferred to support a conservative group that was made up of professionals and those educated in America or by American missionaries (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008). The American had their nominee, Rhee, whom considered a significant assets since he was educated in America and was not tented by the relationship with the Japanese but he was tenaciously against the communist. On the other hand the USSR had, Kim, who opposed the Japanese and participated with the red Armey in the WWII, he was known for viciously putting down all opposition to communist rule. As a result Rhee and his party won the election pole against the communist in the south which escalated the tension between the two Koreas at that time the 38th parallel became an official political border between the south and the north, the communist and the capitalist. As tense increased both sides of the Korean peninsula made major infiltration across the border, in the south communist activist were arrested and imprisoned furthermore in the north anti-communist where put down. Accordingly USSR and US tactically withdrawals from their military zones at the front line leaving only advisors. In China, Mao Ze Dong, have successes in winning the civil war and forming a communist Chinese republic. Maos reviled that the west and America are chines biggest nightmare mentioning the years of humiliation china faced under the last dyne sty of Chinese empire and the colonelcies era of china. The Chinese soviet friendship relation lunched then a new chapter in the cold war I Asia leaving US provoking danger through this relation specially after the soviet successes into breaking the atomic monopoly of the USA, as quoted by Charles Murphy , president Truman special counsel in his respond to the scenarios that might goes, what I read scared me so much that the next day I did not go to the office at all , I sat at home and read this memo over and over wondering what in the world to do about it (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008). The war, The purpose of unifying Korea was the essential passionate for both Korean leaders; however Kim was more greatly obsessive about it because of the corrupted Rhee government and non-match able military experience. Kremlin was always anxious for the US response also Stalin sought after to respect the mutual treaty with the US, however the crises in Berlin plus to the communist victory in china along with the equivalence atomic power of the US-Soviet stimulated a new calculation that the US response will be carefully measured, Mao Ze Dong, responded to this permission that US would not start a third war over such a small territory (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008) . June, 25, 1950 an astonishing attack from the North Korean military into the South Korean border, the unmatchable soviet tank and military equipments forced the South Korean forces to withdraw fast for not being able to meet the confront. Immediately the US and the UN requested the international community to condemn the attack and appealed for sending troops into South Korea a demand which challenged by protest from the soviet and Chinese behave. The absence of the soviet from the UN meeting allowed the call to pass. Kim, Mao, and Stalin were surprised from the response of the USA to fight over a small area. However the American did not see it this way, they distinguish a threat for their national security and international order also they predict a prevail of the communist ideology which they had to stop, President Truman quoted we are fighting for our national security and our survival (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008). June, 28, 1950 after three days from the beginning of the invasion North Korean army entered Seoul, the US army first battalion under the command of general MacArthur landed in Osan tackling the Korean army whom equipped with soviet tools, the first American in the cold war to confront a communist directly were small members unit deployed in the hills near the Korean town Osan (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008), they admit defeat which was a disaster news to Washington whom ordered general Mac Arthur to send larger troops and start an air strike and navy bombardments. In the first military confrontation of the cold war, solders of the most powerful nation on earth had been humiliated by the soviet equipped troops from a tiny country (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008), the only success for the UN-US forces were by air strike however kim troops contunied to push the allied forces to the southern corner around a city of Pusan. September, 1950 massive bombardement by the US navy ehich lead north Korean army to trumple, the situation turned in fevaor of the UN-US.rhee and general MacArthur decided to librate the capital seoul first after that they can marsh towards the 38th paraelle . in few weeks both Rhee and the general aimed to re-unite korea quating we have not got this far to stop where the fight began (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008). October, 1950 US troops crossed the 38th paraelle and advanced into communist territory, pyonyang falls the only communist capital ever to fall to the west in cold war (Jeremy Isaacs Taylor Downing, 2008),as a result china determine to help north korea. November, 1950 chinese lunched full scal asult against US-UN troops, USA wanted to avoid full confortation with china and they also did not want to inviate stailn to the war.therefore they withdrawls to the 38th paraelle line. War tragedy For the two superpowers shows of power ability and military thousands of US and chines solders were sacrificed , both north and south korea lost up to a million in death soldiers and civilians. Koreans economy were disastress and te result is what.

In Praise of Jared Diamonds Guns, Germs, and Steel Essay -- Wealth En

In Praise of Jared Diamond's Guns, Germs, and Steel Jared Diamond's bestseller Guns, Germs, and Steel (GG&S) is an attempt to explain why some parts of the world are currently powerful and prosperous while others are poor. Diamond is both a physiologist and a linguist who spends a good deal of his time living with hunter gathers in Papua New Guinea. As a researcher and as a human being, he is convinced that all people have the same potential. Hunter gatherers are just as intelligent, resourceful, and diligent as anybody else. Yet material "success" isn't equally distributed across the globe. Civilization sprung up in relatively few places and spread in a defined pattern. I should emphasize that Diamond doesn't equate material prosperity with well-being or virtue. He's just curious about the global distribution of bling bling. Diamond's hypothesis is that geography gave certain groups big initial advantages. Specifically, some places are more conducive to domestication of plants and animals. Most people think that domestication is just a matter of capturing animals and breeding them in captivity. This is a misconception. Domesticated species of plants and animals have undergone major genetic changes through years of selective breeding. Compared to their wild ancestors, the major cereal crops are more nutritious, quicker to germinate, and easier to sow and harvest. Domestic animals are more docile, easier to train, and generally more suited to life in captivity. Diamond's key point is that not every wild species is equally susceptible to domestication and that domesticable species are not evenly distributed across the globe. Wild horses and camels had the "right" stuff, reindeer not so much. As modern attempts to domesticat... ...ccupied with gathering and child rearing. In other societies, some people can devote their time to science, technology, philosophy, politics, finance and the other cultural roles that define state societies. There's nothing in Diamond's book to suggest that he is anything but a friend of the Enlightenment. He's a practicing scientist who attempts to analyze historical trends in scientific terms. He is also a sympathetic interpreter who respects and admires human diversity. He believes in progress, but he doesn't assume that technologically advanced people are superior or even uniformly better off. Finally, he affirms the values of the Enlightenment by suggesting how we can use history and science to build more prosperous, stable, and just societies. Source Cited Diamond, Jared M. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fate of Human Societies. New York: Norton, 1997.

Atomic Bomb In World War 2 :: essays research papers

Atomic Bomb in World War 2 During World War II the United States government launched a $2 billion project. This project, known as the Manhattan Project, was an effort to produce an atomic bomb. This project was taken on by a group atomic scientists from all over the world. The first atomic bomb was not tested at all. It was dropped on Hiroshima, Japan on August 6, 1945 killing over 80,000 people and almost completely leveling the entire city. It destroyed more than 4 square miles, or 60% of the city. The flash of the blast was so intense it discolored the pavement and left imprints on the ground cast by the shadows of building and people. By studying these shadows scientists pinpointed the exact detonation point of the bomb.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second atomic bomb was dropped just three days later on Nagasaki, Japan. 1/3 of the city was destroyed and 66,000 people were reported killed or injured. A memorial now marks the spot where the bomb exploded.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the initial blast the A-bomb released about 85% of its energy as intense heat followed by a supersonic shock wave that is felt as a highly destructive high pressure air blast, which can easily demolish tall buildings, not to mention people. After the initial blast radiation covers the area, causing people, animals, and structures to practically disintegrate. Even years afterwards people were still dying and having health problems related to the radiation they were exposed to long before.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There were many people that were strongly opposed to the using of nuclear weapons on Japan. But invading the is land instead of bombing would have taken perhaps 1 million us soldiers lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After 1945 the US made thousand of atomic bombs and a wide range of small size nuclear weapons like, land mines, missiles, and grenades. By 1965 the larger countries of the world had also developed atomic weapons.

Emergence of Critical and Cultural Theories Essay

Culture : the learned behavior of members of a given social group. Cultural studies: Focus use of media to create forms of culture that structure everyday life. Political economy theories: Focus on social elites’ use of economic power to exploit media institutions. 2 There are microscopic interpretive theories that focus on how individuals and social groups use media to create and foster forms of culture that structure everyday life. These theories are referred to as cultural studies theories. There are macroscopic structural theories that focus on how social elites use their economic power to gain ontrol over and 3 Cultural Theory: Theories openly espousing certain values and using these values to evaluate and criticize the status quo providing alternate ways of interpreting the social role of mass media. Those who develop critical theories seek to initiate social change that will implement their values. Political economy theories are inherently critical but some cultural studies 4 Critical theories often provides complex explanations for this tendency of media to consistently do so. E. g: some critical theorists identify constraints on media practitioners that limit their ability to challenge established authority. They charge that few incentives exist to encourage media professionals to overcome these constraints and that media 5 Critical theory often analyzes specific social institutions, probing the extent to which valued objects are sought and achieved. Mass Media and the mass culture have been linked to a variety of social problems, they are criticized for aggravating or preventing problems from being identified or addressed. A common theme in critical theories of media is that content production is so constrained 6 Consider for example, the last time you read news about members of a social ovement that strongly challenged the status quo? Why were the college students who protested against the Communist Chinese government in Tiananmen Square â€Å"heroes of democracy’ and those in American anti-war â€Å"hippies† and â€Å"radicals? † Stories about movements imply problems with 7 – controntation. Movement leaders demand coverage ot their complaints and they stage demonstrations designed to draw public attention to their concerns. Elites seek to minimize coverage or to exercise â€Å"spin control† so that the coverage favors their position. How do Journalists handle this? How should they handle it? Existing research indicates that this coverage almost always degenerates movements and supports elites. 8 Critical theory: Strengths: 1. Is politically based, actionoriented. 2. Uses theory and research to plan change in the real world. 3. Asks big, important questions about media control and ownership. 9 Weaknesses: 3. When subjected to scientific verification, often employs innovative but controversial research methods. 0 Rise of Cultural Theories in Europe: Despite its long life in American Social Science, the Limited Effects Paradigm never enjoyed great popularity in europe. European social research has instead been characterized by what U. S. Observers regard as grand social theories. Grand Social Theory: Highly ambitious, 1 1 In Europe, the development of grand social theory remained a central concern i n the social sciences and humanities. Mass society theory gave way to a succession of alternate ideas. Some were limited to specific nations and others spread across many countries. Some of the most widely accepted have been based on the writings of Karl Marx. Marxist theory influenced even the theories that were created in reaction against it. Marxist ideas formed a foundation or touch stone for most postworld War II european social theory and research. 12 Cold War politics colored much of the U. S. Response to it. Ironically, in the 1970s and 1980s, at the very time that Marxist failed as a practical guide for politics and economics in Eastern Europe, grand social theories based on Marxist thought were gaining increasing acceptance in Western Europe. 3 MARXIST THEORY: Marxist Theory: Theory arguing that the hierarchical class system is at the root of all social problems and must be ended by a revolution of the proletariat. Karl Marx developed this theory in the latter part of the nineteenth century during one of the most volatile periods of social change in Europe. In some respects, his theory is yet another version ot mass society theory- – but witn se veral very important alterations and additions. 14 He identified industrialization and urbanization as problems but argued that these changes were not inherently bad. Instead, he blamed ruthless robber baron capitalists for exacerbating social problems because they maximized personal profits by exploiting workers. Marx argued that the hierarchical class system was the root of ll social problems and must be ended by a revolution of the workers or proletariat. He believed that elites dominated society primarily through their direct control over the means of production (i. e. , labor, factories, land) which he referred to as the base of society. 15 But elites also maintained themselves in power through their control over culture, or the superstructure of society. He saw culture as something that elites freely manipulated to mislead average people and encourage them to act against their own interest. He used the term ideology to refer to these forms of culture. To him, ideology operated much like a drug. Those who were under its influence fail to see how they are being exploited. In worst cases, they are so deceived, that they actually 16 – undermine their own interests and do things that increase the power of elites while making their own lives even worse. Marx concluded that the only hope for social change was a revolution in which the masses seized control of the base the means of production. Control over the superstructure -over ideology would naturally follow. He saw little possibility that reforms in the super structure could ead to social evolution, or if it could, that -that transformation would be very slow in coming. Elites would never willingly surrender POWER. Power must be taken from them. Little purpose would be served by making minor changes in ideology 17 – without first dominating the means of production. Neomarxist Theory: Contemporary incarnation of Marxist theory focusing attention on the super structure. The importance that Neomarxists attach to the super structure has created a fundamental division within Marxism. Many neomaxists assume that useful change can begin with peaceful, ideological reform rather than violent revolution in which he working class seizes control of the means of production. 18 Some neomarxists have developed critiques that call for radically transforming the superstructure while others call for modest reforms. Tensions have arisen among scholars who base their work on Marx’s ideas over the value of the work being done by 19 the various neomarxist schools. Textual Analysis and Literary Criticism: Modern european cultural studies theories have a second, very different source a tradition of humanist criticism of religious and literary texts that is referred to hermeneutics. Hermeneutics: the interpretation f texts to identify their actual or real meaning. 20 -humanists who worked to identify and preserve what came to be known as the â€Å"literary canon† a body of the great literature. The literary canon was part of what was referred to as high culture, a set of cultural artifacts including music, art, literature, and poetry that humanists Judged to have the highest value. 1 – the level of culture to enable even more people to become humane and civilized. Over the years, many different methods for analyzing written texts have emerged from hermeneutics. They share a common purpose: to criticize old and new cultural ractices so that those most deserving of attention can be identified and explained and the less deserving can b e dismissed. This task can be compared with that of movie critics who tell us which films are good or bad and assist us in appreciating or avoiding them. The primary difference is that movie critics are typically not committed to promoting higher 22 – cultural values; they only want to explain which movies we are likely to find entertaining. THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL One early prominent school of neo-marxist theory developed during the 1930s at the University of Frankfurt and became known as the Frankfurt School. 3 Two of the most prominent individuals associated with the school were Max Horkheimer, its long time head, and Theodor Adorno, a prolific and cogent theorist. Horheimer and Adorno were openly skeptical that high culture could or should be communicated through mass media. Adorno argued that radio broadcasts or records couldn’t begin to adequately reproduce the sound of a live symphony orchestra. He ridiculed the reproduction of great art in 24 – magazines or the reprinting of great novels in condensed, serialized form. He claimed that mass media reproductions of high culture were inferior and diverted eople from seeking out (and paying for) the â€Å"real thing† if bad substitutes for high culture were readily available, he believed too many people would settle for them and fail to support better forms of culture. The Frankfurt School has been criticized along with other forms of traditional humanism for being too elitist and paternalistic. By rejecting the possibility of using media to disseminate 25 – high culture, most ot the population was ettectively denied access to it Many ot the school’s criticisms of media paralleled those of mass society theory and had the same limitations. The Frankfurt School eventually had a direct impact on American social research because the rise of the Nazis forced its Jewish members into exile. 26 During the period of exile, however, Frankfurt School Theorists remained prodductive. They devoted considerable effort, for example, to the critical analysis of Nazi culture and the way it undermined and perverted high culture. In their view, Nazism grounded on a phony, artificially constructed folk culture that had been cynically created and manipulated by Hitler and his propagandists. 27 Nazism helped them envision the Germany they longed to see – a unified, proud ation with a long history of achievement and a glorious future. As they rose to power, the Nazis replaced high culture with their pseudofolk culture and discredited important forms of high culture, especially those created by Jews. 8 DEVELOPMENT OF NEOMARXIST THEORY IN BRITAIN: Dunng the 1960s and 1970s , two important schools of neomarxist theory emerged in Great Britain. British Cultural studies and political economy theory. British cultural studies combines neomarxist theory with ideas and research methods derived from diverse sources including literary criticism, linguistics, anthropology, and h istory. This theory has attempted to trace historic elite domination over culture, to criticize the 29 – social consequence of this domination and to demonstrate how it continues to be exercised over specific minority groups or subcultures. British cultural studies criticizes and contrasts elite notions of culture, including high culture, with popular, every day forms practiced by minorities. The superiority of all forms of elite culture including high culture is challenged and compared with useful, valuable forms of popular culture. Hermeneutic attention is shifted from the study of elite cultural rtifacts to the study of minority grouped â€Å"Lived culture. † 30 Graham Murdock(1989) traced the rise of British cultural studies during the 1950s and 1960s. Most important theorists came from the lower social classes that were the focus of the movies. The British cultural studies critique of high culture and ideology was an explicit rejection of what its proponents saw as alien forms of culture imposed on minorities. They defended indigenous forms of popular culture as legitimate expressions of minority groups/ A dominant early theorist was Raymond Williams, a literary scholar who achieved 31 Notoriety with his reappraisals of cultural development in England. William’s ideas were viewd with suspicion and skepticism by many of his colleagues at Cambridge University. Toward the end of 1960s and into the 1970s, Williams turned his attention to mass media. He was more broadly concerned with issues of cultural change and development as well as elite domination ot culture. 3 – repackaged as popular, mass media content. If there were to be genuine progress, he felt, it would have to come through significant reform of social institutions. The first important school of cultural studies theorists was formed at the University of Birmingham, during the 1960s and was led by Stuart Hall. Hall (1982) was especially influential in directing several analyses of mass media that directly challenge limited effects notions and in introducing innovative alternatives. Building on ideas developed by Jurgen Habermas(1971 , 1989) and Williams, Hall argued that mass media liberal -democracies can be best understood as a pluralistic public forum in which various forces struggle to shape popular notions about social reality. Pluralistic Public Forum: In critical theory, the idea that media provide a place where the power of dominant lite can be challenged. British Cultural Studies: Strengths: 1 . Asserts value of popular culture 2. Empowers â€Å"Common Man† 34 3. Empowers minorities and values their culture. 4. Stresses cultural pluralism and egalitarianism. Weaknesses: 1. Is too political; call to action is to subjective 2. Typically lacks scientific verification; is based on subjective observation. 3. When subjected to scientific verification, often employs innovative but controversial research methods. 35 Unlike traditional Marxists, Hall did not argue that elites can maintain complete control over this forum. In his view, elites don’t need that power to advance their interests. The culture expressed in this forum is not a mere superficial reflection of the superstructure but is instead a dynamic creation of opposing groups.